Inside-Out: Hidden Factual Knowledge in LLMs
Zorik Gekhman, Eyal Ben David, Hadas Orgad, Eran Ofek, Yonatan Belinkov, Idan Szpector, Jonathan Herzig, Roi Reichart
2025-03-21
Summary
This paper looks at whether AI language models know more than they actually show.
What's the problem?
AI models might have information stored inside them that they don't always use when answering questions.
What's the solution?
The researchers came up with a way to measure how much knowledge the AI has inside versus how much it shows on the outside, by comparing the AI's answers to its internal calculations.
Why it matters?
This work matters because it shows that AI models might be smarter than we think, but we need to find ways to unlock that hidden knowledge.
Abstract
This work presents a framework for assessing whether large language models (LLMs) encode more factual knowledge in their parameters than what they express in their outputs. While a few studies hint at this possibility, none has clearly defined or demonstrated this phenomenon. We first propose a formal definition of knowledge, quantifying it for a given question as the fraction of correct-incorrect answer pairs where the correct one is ranked higher. This gives rise to external and internal knowledge, depending on the information used to score individual answer candidates: either the model's observable token-level probabilities or its intermediate computations. Hidden knowledge arises when internal knowledge exceeds external knowledge. We then present a case study, applying this framework to three popular open-weights LLMs in a closed-book QA setup. Our results indicate that: (1) LLMs consistently encode more factual knowledge internally than what they express externally, with an average gap of 40%. (2) Surprisingly, some knowledge is so deeply hidden that a model can internally know an answer perfectly, yet fail to generate it even once, despite large-scale repeated sampling of 1,000 answers. This reveals fundamental limitations in the generation capabilities of LLMs, which (3) puts a practical constraint on scaling test-time compute via repeated answer sampling in closed-book QA: significant performance improvements remain inaccessible because some answers are practically never sampled, yet if they were, we would be guaranteed to rank them first.